The Isha Upanishad: Translation and Commentary (Part 1: Verses 1-5)

Dear readers, I have started a new series of blogs wherein I shall be presenting the translations added by my commentaries on the verses of the Upanishads. The Upanishads are the knowledge portion of the Vedas. They are said to have arisen out of the Aranyakas, which in turn are the last sections of the books of Brahmanams. In ancient ages, a lot of contemplation on the Vedic knowledge has been done by the Rishis that gave rise to the Upanishads. This is not the place to explain the process of the Vedic contemplation and would rather directly jump into the core subject of the Upanishads. There a total of 108 Upanishads and each are a part of one or the other Vedic Samhitas. Of these 13 Upanishads find particular importance. I am starting with a small Upanishad called Isha Upanishad that has only 18 verses. However, the Upanishads must not be measured by their quantities. The amount of knowledge that each verse contains is immense and a matter of great contemplation. The word Isha comes from Isha-vasya which means pervaded by the lord. The core idea is that everything that exists and does not is all pervaded by the lord. This idea finds the centre stage and is expressed in multiple ways in this Upanishad.

Isha Upanishad opens with a beautiful verse that explains completion-

ॐ पूर्णमदः पूर्णमिदं पूर्णात्पूर्णमुदच्यते ।
पूर्णस्य पूर्णमादाय पूर्णमेवावशिष्यते ॥
ॐ शान्तिः शान्तिः शान्तिः ॥

Om Puurnnam-Adah Puurnnam-Idam Puurnnaat-Puurnnam-Udacyate |
Puurnnasya Puurnnam-Aadaaya Puurnnam-Eva-Avashissyate ||
Om Shaantih Shaantih Shaantih ||

Translation-

The visible is complete the invisible is also complete. From the infinite rises the infinite. If we take out infinite from the infinite still infinite remains.

Let there be peace, let there be peace, let there be peace!

Verse 1

ईशावास्यमिदं सर्वं यत्किञ्च जगत्यां जगत् ।
तेन त्यक्तेन भुञ्जीथा मा गृधः कस्यस्विद्धनम् ॥

īśāvāsyamidaṃ sarvaṃ yatkiñca jagatyāṃ jagat |
tena tyaktena bhuñjīthā mā gṛdhaḥ kasyasviddhanam ||

Translation-

All that is in this existence is pervaded by the lord. One must be supported by this thought of renunciation. Do not desire for anyone’s wealth.

Explanation-

The universal being covers everything visible in this universe. It is present in all that is moving and visible unbroken like a continuous sheath. This visible universe is merely a modification of ‘that’ invisible absolute. So, always be content with that wealth which falls in your way and never envy or desire the wealth of others. Because the wealth belongs to that only. Renounce the delusion of the temporary and see that which is universal and without an end (or a start). One must never waver from this focus. One must never be dependent on the temporary and the fleeting or misunderstanding it as permanent. One must depend on the universal essence without flinching for a moment. That universal essence is complete in the self. Thus, the world is merely a manifestation or projection of that self. It cannot exist without the self. The manifestation shall merge with that in due course of time. The matter shall disintegrate, the chemicals (or molecules) become part of nature once again, the energy shall become one with the universe and the consciousness shall merge with the universal consciousness once again. All attempt to compare is vain. Everything in the visible universe is relative of one another. There will always be a person or an object that is bigger than you and always someone smaller. There is no upper or lower limit. The lowest is still in the middle and the largest is in the middle again unless we find relatively smaller or larger objects. So, is true of wealth. All wealth is infinite and his. The limited capacity of the intellect binds us in the comprehension of only that which is relative. So, we cannot imagine the absolute and infinite. However, a tree forms out of a small seed, which in turn forms out of a minute cell. Thus, a cell can become a huge tree. However, it will not form into a tree unless it has nourishing external elements. Both these elements are mere modifications of the invisible infinite into visible finite. The infinite remains unchanged. The one aspect of duality has meaning because something relative exists. Pain has meaning because pleasure exists and vice versa. Earth has meaning because another matter in the universe exists. The moment the other objects (or subjects) stop existing, the object of focus will cease to exist. For one matter to sustain we need another matter to nourish it. The quantities of the matter in the universe are finite and continuously nourish each other. Something is made when something else is broken. However, the matter can convert into energy which has an infinite existence. Thus, matter merges with the infinite in due course. Thus, ultimately, the finite merges into the infinite. The inherent absolute absorbs the gross back to the subtle. In this entire process, the absolute remains infinite thus, unaltered. Because the gross modification will always remain next to nothing (almost zero). As the big becomes bigger the small naturally becomes smaller and this process can continue for infinity. Thus, it is important to have and enjoy that which comes in one’s way however small it may be. As everything is relative we should realize we can never have all that is gross in this universe. Sooner we realize this the better. For whatever wealth anyone possesses in life, it is infinitesimally tiny and has no significance in the overall existence. It is the limited intellect that creates a delusion of meaning to the gross and finite. The lower intellect is gripped by the idea of pleasures. Thus, it forms a chain of ideas that support the possession of these pleasures.

Verse 2-

कुर्वन्नेवेह कर्माणि जिजीविषेत् सतं समाः ।
एवं त्वयि नान्यथेतोऽस्ति न कर्म लिप्यते नरे ॥

kurvanneveha karmāṇi jijīviṣet sataṃ samāḥ ।
evaṃ tvayi nānyatheto’sti na karma lipyate nare ॥

Translation-

If one desires to live on this earth for 100 years, it can only be done by performing righteous karmas. There is no other way that a person may not bond to the consequences of his Karma.

Explanation-

Now we have to accept that we cannot survive here without performing some or the other karma. The past karmas will often interfere with our present in unpredictable ways. These could be favorable or unfavorable to healthy living. However, if one wishes for long life, one must remain physically, mentally and spiritually healthy. The Vedas prescribe ways for a healthy lifestyle and also prescribe means by which one will never be affected by the consequences of the actions. This does not mean that whatever actions we perform will not affect us. It means that if we perform certain prescribed actions and that too in certain ways it will keep us free of any future effect of the actions. Everything that is sent out does not travel straight. But moves in a circular path and reaches the point where it started. It may take some time to reach but it reaches its origin at the end. So, the Vedas prescribe us to watch our actions. These also include mental actions.

Survival is the fundamental instinct of life and it strives to survive under all circumstances. So, perform karma in such a way that you stay free from the outcomes of the karma. So that the karma does not start a new start-end cycle. This can be achieved only by karma yoga-Perform karma as service

Perform karma while realizing that he is the doer

2. Perform karmas that do not have any selfish motives or outcomes

3. Perform those karmas that uplift your consciousness that takes one to enlightenment

4. Perform swa-dharma karma as a duty

5. Perform karma as ordered by the enlightened souls/ Guru/ alike

6. Perform karmas as per guidance by the self

7. Perform those karmas that have arisen out of a firm resolve to do good to self and others

8. Perform Vedic karmas, meditations, yoga, upasanas etc.

Verse 3-

असुर्य नाम ते लोका अन्धेन तमसावृताः ।
तांस्ते प्रेत्याभिगच्छन्ति ये के चात्महनो जनाः ॥

asurya nāma te lokā andhena tamasāvṛtāḥ |
tāṃste pretyābhigacchanti ye ke cātmahano janāḥ ||

Translation

Those who kill the self go to the world of the asuras after giving up this body. The world of the asuras is covered with darkening and blinding ignorance.

Explanation-

Our past actions define our present situation and tendencies and our current actions define our future. The ones who do not follow the path of Karma yoga will be unceasingly stuck in the cycles of life and birth. After the karmic accounts of both good and bad are settled the person is back to nothing. However, this does not happen since a human simultaneously experiences his past karmas and creates new karmas in the present. Thus, he gets stuck unendingly in the karmic cycle unless he breaks it with righteous actions performed with righteous intentions and motives. There are two categories of actions- one that aligns with the self and the others that align with the temporary mind. All actions that align with the self steadily pushes one towards the light of the self. The opposite happens when one aligns the actions with the temporary mind. One must learn with practice to be obedient to the orders of the self and learn in due course to comprehend these directives. However, if we decide to ignore the guidance of the self we are doomed to face unfavorable consequences. Thus, one must learn to be obedient to the self. The self guides unceasingly. However, our actions at times are misaligned with this guidance. Not listening to the self is like not allowing the self to express completely and thus like killing the self.

Verse 4-

अनेजदेकं मनसो जवीयो नैनद्देवाप्नुवन्पूर्वमर्षत् ।
तद्धावतोऽन्यान्नत्येति तिष्ठत् तस्मिन्नापो मातरिश्वा दधाति ॥

anejadekaṃ manaso javīyo nainaddevāpnuvanpūrvamarṣat |
taddhāvato’nyānnatyeti tiṣṭhat tasminnāpo mātariśvā dadhāti ||

Translation

That does not move and is yet faster than the mind. The one outruns the senses. It does not move yet outruns all that passes by. In its support, the cosmic energy can sustain all that exists.

Explanation-

The universal consciousness is all-pervading. Consciousness is neither matter nor energy. It is the fundamental existence upon which energy and matter are projected. Thus, it forms continuous support upon which energy and matter rest. It is also the basis from which matter and energy originate. It is homogenous, undivided, unmodified, absolute, invisible and in its purest state. Since it is all-pervading it does not move. However, it is swifter than light as it can be at all positions in the infinite existence at the same time. The senses are slower than the mind and the mind is slower than the consciousness. The mind starts from a position, thus, it moves and reaches a new position. However, the same consciousness is everywhere at the same time. It is not limited by time, space or relativity. Thus, it outruns anything that moves as anything that moves is limited by space and time.

Verse 5-

तदेजति तन्नैजति तद्दूरे तद्वन्तिके ।
तदन्तरस्य सर्वस्य तदु सर्वस्यास्य बाह्यतः ॥

tadejati tannaijati taddūre tadvantike |
tadantarasya sarvasya tadu sarvasyāsya bāhyataḥ ||

Translation-

It does not move yet is moves. It is too far yet too near. It is inside yet outside of everything.

Explanation-

Consciousness does not have a fixed property like matter or energy. It can move yet at the same time it can be still. It can be near yet it can be far as it is not limited by the idea of position or space. It is difficult to contemplate infinity. The brain is not wired to imagine (let alone comprehension) infinity. We can take the analogy of the Heisenberg Uncertainty principle. As we go to sub-atomic levels, the particles stop to take a specific position. According to quantum mechanics, reality collapses into one possibility or other at certain sub-atomic levels of existence. Thus, as we get subtler two contradictory events can occur at the same time and at the same place. This was probably what the Vedic Rishis experienced when they moved from limited to infinite consciousness. Because these words were written at a time when the rest of the world was playing with sticks and stones! This contradiction can also be explained by Henry Schrödinger’s thought experiment of a cat where he says that there can be a time in the experiment when the cat is both dead and alive at the same time. However, one who observes will only see it as either dead or alive and not both. This is exactly the limitation that the intelligence is stuck in. It cannot cross the barrier of not being able to comprehend the two contradictory possibilities at the same time. Thus, the brain cannot analyze two real concepts- 1) that existence can be infinite (or what is infinity?) and 2) that there is no duality in existence: Everything is one and at the same time multiple. It sees only the multi-fold existence. Thus, the Vedic Rishis urge us here to pass this limitation and get one with the infinite consciousness that can analyze the existence as it is in its purest form. Moreover, the same consciousness has formed the visible universe. In other words, the visible universe is a projection of the universal consciousness in action. As one stops seeing the movement of this consciousness one starts seeing the motionless, absolute infinite consciousness. However, the visible universe is not formed of some other material or quality. It is the consciousness that has expressed itself as this observable universe. And this visible universe shall merge with the invisible consciousness after a period. This will recur in cycles of forming and breaking, yet the invisible consciousness shall remain unchanged in the entire process. It is only the limitation of the instrument called the intellect that limits the comprehension of this unity.

How is life connected to the cosmic bodies: According to Vedas?

The subtlest existence in the universe is called as Brahma. Until the time when the universe was not created Brahma was in its absolute inert state. We need to understand that desire is not a human thing. The universe has a fundamental quality called desire. The Vedic system says that the supreme at one point in time had a desire which is expressed as “एकोहम् बहुस्याम्”. This means that a desire of multiplying (or dividing) arose in the supreme being. The supreme is said to have three fundamental qualities- 1) Desire 2) Will and 3) Force. When the universe was non-existent these qualities were inert yet existing. We need to imagine this like a small seed that has the potential to become an entire tree. Thus, these qualities stay inert until the first quality expresses itself, i.e. the desire becomes active. With the desire to multiply the supreme uses its second quality of will. This quality is called as ‘Sankalp”. This will of Brahma is the fire deity that is worshipped in the Vedas. Fire is thus the primordial will to create. Even today fire is associated with the quality of creation. The will (Sankalpa) to cause the very first activity of the Brahma-element leads to the primordial force (Shakti). This force is referred to by many names in the scriptures. The primordial force of creation is called as Adi Shakti or Gayatri. Adi means first. Thus, this force represents the very first vibration of the Brahma. This first vibration is also called as the Brahma Akshar. The primordial force has three-fold tendencies- 1) sustaining (sattva) 2) creative (rajas) and 3) destructive (tamas). As the universe was being created, the entire creation was primarily expressed as subtle or subjective which later formed into gross material or the objective. Thus, every object has an underlying subject. This can be understood from the fact that behind the body is the mind, behind the mind is the intellect and behind the intellect (that which inspires the intellect to act) is the soul.

The entire existence expresses the three-fold tendencies of sattwa, rajas and tamas. Even during the time of the universe when the matter did not exist, the existential force had these three-fold tendencies. In time the first element was formed- The Akash (ether), from Akash evolved Vayu (Air) from Vayu evolved Fire (Agni), from Agni evolved Jal (water) and finally Prithvi (earth element) evolved out of Jal. Thus, the gross evolved out of the subtle in a gradual process of evolution. The Vedic Rishis identified this. They realized that every matter in this universe has undergone this fundamental process of evolution. Thus, they concluded (and saw) that even the inanimate matter (the object) must have an underlying subtle core (the subject). This was the basis of the realization of the Rishis that the cosmos is alive and active. However, they also realized that the alive and active cosmos has a dormant and inert essence that remains unchanged. So, they concluded that even though the subtle expresses as the matter (as gross) still the essence remains untouched and absolute. Relativity came to being with the first vibration. As there were further vibrations relative to each other the idea of cyclic repetition came into existence and with cyclic repetition came the idea of time. Thus, time is recent to the primordial existence. The clock of the universe only started ticking after the first vibration came in being.

The same universe manifests the three-fold tendencies- creation, sustenance and destruction (or inertia). These three forces are in harmony and equilibrium with each other. As matter evolves out of the subtle energies, even matter contain these three-fold tendencies. As the planets and other cosmic bodies were evolving out of the subtle energies, the bodies were a combination of these three-fold tendencies with one dominating tendency. Thus, each planet in the solar system is a mix of these tendencies but with varying proportions, with one active tendency. Let us see the planets with active tendencies-

Saatwik- Sun, Moon and Jupiter
Rajasik- Mercury and Venus
Taamasik- Mars and Saturn

We need to note that in Vedic astrology even the Sun and the Moon are considered as planets. Thus, we see that different planets have different tendencies. Now let us see the elemental influence of the planets.

All matter is formed of the five fundamental elements- Akash, Vayu, Agni, Jal and Prithvi. Like the gunas (sattwa, rajas and tamas), even the elements have their tendencies. Explaining each element is beyond the scope of this blog. It will suffice to understand that matter is formed of a varying proportion of these five elements. Based on the dominating element (in proportion), the matter will emit out energies that represent the tendencies of the matter. Now let us see the planetary representation of the elements-

Agni tattwa- Mars and Sun
Bhoo Tattwa- Mercury
Vaayu tattwa- Saturn
Akash tattwa- Jupiter
Jala Tattwa- Venus and Moon

So, each planet will have a personality that is represented by its dominant guna and tattwa. For example, Sun which emits energies of the Agni tattwa expresses a personality of Agni tattwa- bright, aggressive, creative yet destructive, nourisher etc. Similarly, the personalities of the other planets are affected by the elements that they represent (dominant element).

According to Vedic astrology, the universe is full of conjunctions. This means that each celestial body which has its cyclic repetitive movement in the universe has a path that crosses with paths of several other bodies at a particular time. Thus, at a given moment, the position of all the celestial objects is fixed and can be determined. The Rishis considered these conjunctions to be very important. They realized that one celestial body has energy influence over the other and these influences are altered cyclically by the relative positions of the bodies. The birth of a child is the time when the body enters this world. Thus, according to Rishis, a new celestial body enters this universe. By this, the equilibrium of the energies due to all the bodies have to alter. Thus, when a child is born a new universal equilibrium of energies and force is set! The new entrant now influences the celestial bodies. However, the celestial bodies, especially those which are physically near show larger influence on the small body than the reverse. The kind of influence of the planets is determined by the positions of the planets relative to the earth. This is because of two reasons-

The movement of the planets alter the intensity of the energies and tendencies at a given time at a given place
The energy of one planet can influence (or alter) the energy of another. Thus, the resultant energy intensity depends upon the relative positions

Now, to understand the influence of the planets on the human system we need to understand the subtle system of the human body first. Like every other thing that exists in the universe, the human body is formed of the fundamental five elements. These elements are seated (like a seed) in the five energy centres of the human body-

Akash in Vishuddha chakra (throat chakra)
Vayu in Anahat chakra (heart chakra)
Agni in Manipur chakra (solar plexus)
Jal in Swadhishthan chakra (navel chakra)
Prithvi in Muladhara chakra (root chakra)

Thus, the elements are closely related to the chakras. The elements form the fundamental guides for our life and are the primary cause of all the mental and physical activities. These five elements are fixed in proportion in our body-

Akash- 6%
Agni- 4%
Vayu- 6%
Jal- 72 %
Prithvi- 12%

Thus, one can infer that the human body is foremost formed of water. The moon (which influences and is influenced by) the water element directly affects our human body. This can be seen from several examples-

The menstrual cycle of women is ~1 lunar month (28 days)
The gestational age (time for the birth of a child) is ~10 lunistellar months (~9 months).
The garbhasanvatsar (puberty) is the phase when the child moves from childhood to adulthood. The internal biological changes can start within 100 lunistellar months (~7.5 years). Thus, this time is decided for the Upanayanan sanskar where the child moves to the stage of Brahmacharya (studenthood).
The Shathaabhisekha is a ceremony when the person is at the end of adulthood and is marked by 1000 lunistellar months (~80 – 84 years).

It is well known that the moon controls the tides on earth. In other words, it controls the water element. The phases of the moon have several effects on the biological clock. Similarly, all other planets have their electromagnetic influences on the energy system of the body. The planets directly affect the energy centres-

Muladhara chakra is affected by Mars
Swadhishthan chakra is affected by Mercury and Moon
Manipur Chakra is affected by Jupiter and Sun
Anahat chakra is affected by Venus
Vishuddha chakra is affected by Saturn
Ajnya chakra by Sun
Sahasrar chakra by the moon.

The Sun represents the soul or the innermost core of the body system, whereas, the moon represents the mind or the consciousness. The three most important meridians (nadis) of the body are- Ida, Pingala and Sushumna. Ida represents the moon (i.e. the mind) and Pingala represents the Sun (i.e. the body). These are the nearest planets to the earth and these exhibit maximum influence of the human body system. Nevertheless, other planets also affect our energy systems.

The relative positions of the planets at the time of birth form specific conjunction of the planetary paths during their movements around the Sun. These positions lead to a baseline effect on the energy systems of the body at the time of birth. The child also gives rise to similar influences on the planets, however, these influences are too small to make any notable changes on the planets. The electromagnetic radiations of the planets at the time of birth form a signature on the birth chart of the child. These radiations influence the human body systems in ways that depend upon the favourable or unfavourable energy positions of these planets. It determines the tendencies of an individual during the times when a particular planet is active or the potential reactions a human may give to situations. It must, however, be noted that the planets cannot decide the fate of an individual. They can certainly influence our process of decision making. An active Mars, for example, can act through the Agni tattwa and can lead to several malefic effects of the fire element. However, if one is aware enough of the elements and the effect of the planets on these elements (and chakras) one can overcome these effects. Even so, the planets certainly affect the human energy systems and interfere with the overall life events and processes.

References-

Behari B. Book: Fundamentals of Vedic Astrology.
PVR Narasimha Rao. Book: Vedic Astrology: An integral approach
Brihat Parashar Hora Shastra by Rishi Parashar
Bhattathiri N (2016). How planets influence human growth and development. Researchgate. Available at- file:///C:/Users/Umakant/Desktop/VEDAS/BioAstrologyeMagazine.pdf
Shriram Sharma Acharya. Book: Gayatri Mahavigyan

Puranas: The heart of Vedas

The original authors of this article are BVK Sastry and Gururaj Mutalik. The original article can be found in the link- http://ancientindianwisdom.com/vedas-and-vedic-system/puranas-the-heart-of-vedas. We have added this article here for reference purpose only considering the methodology of the writings align our methods of presenting the Vedic knowledge.

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Puranas are the sacred literature of Sanatana Dharma. These voluminous and encyclopedic works are the common person’s tools to understand the essence of Vedas through song, stories and ritualistic symbols. Puranas have shaped Hindu community faith identity over centuries. Puranas have molded community faith in sacredness of the land and ritual (Teertha-kshetra). Puranas sculpt the sacred and ethical code of human and divine relations through vrata-katha- the religious narratives of Gods and Goddesses. Puranas provide the practical means of worshipping Divine through the symbolic forms of Gods at temples, as a stepping stone for commoner, to access Divine through emotional attachment (Bhakti ). Puranas are the treasure house of many stories and narratives that binds together families through festivity and relations. The national and community festivities of Navaratri Desersa, Ganesha Worship, Kumbha-mela, Deepvali, and Holi are some of the religious events derived from the authority of Puranas and are of community wide significance. These works provide the source inspiration for art, (temple) architecture, dance and music compositions which are the variegated tapestry of culture of India.

The term ‘purana’ is found in the Atharvaveda 11.7.24 and Chandogya Upanishad (7.1.2), translated, The Brhadaranyaka Upanishad refers to purana as the “fifth Veda”, itihāsapurāṇaṃ pañcamaṃ vedānāṃ, reflecting the early religious importance of Puranas. Mahabharata, the great epic is also called itihāsapurāṇaṃ. Generally Puranas do not carry any supplementing commentary or additional explanation. The open ended approach to absorb and be current for teaching Dharma Shastra seems to have created a danger of interpolation, textual loss and corruption. Though these works are not in the main stream of Vedanta texts, there seems to have emerged a necessity to weave a thread of consistency for meaning and purpose of these works. In 13^th century, sri Madvacharya composed the work called Mahabharata Tatparya Nirnaya to show the threads of a consistent understanding running across all Puranas to establish the message of Vedas. Taking references from all Puranas, Madhvacahrya establishes the message of Vedas as Sanatana Dharma and supremacy of Sri Vishnu.Read More….

Maharshi Veda Vyasa, the organizer of Vedas in to four main categories is also considered the narrator-author and compiler of Puranas. The works are open ended and keep updating to meet the needs of the dynamic society. The elements of history sometimes get included as a part of the religious texts. Thus Puranas also serve as the resource reference for exploring the history of land and communities. Though a technical definition of what constitutes a Purana is there in tradition, all the elements in the extant works of Purana may not match this criterion. Puranas, being oral tradition, like Vedas, and addressing a social outreach purpose of spreading Sanatana Dharma values, have tended to absorb history and social events of to the realm of sacred and pass it on to later generations.

Puranas are generally in the form of poetic dialogue between Gods and sages and narratives to an assembly of spiral seekers. They contain narratives made to spiritual seekers and sages, on specific questions. Puranas are voluminous works and are encyclopedic in nature. The language of narrative is Samskrit. The tradition of Purana narration is called ‘Katha’. One who undertakes the social spread of the message of Puranas through public discourse, song and ritual -narrative s- is called katha-kaar / Hari katha kaar’. This is a means used by saints and sages to deliver the message of Vedas, wrapped in the protective package of faith-devotion to personal deities. The beneficiaries of Purana discourse are common household persons, especially women in the society. The use of music and dance is an integral part of Purana-narration.

On an overall count, there are 18 main Purana works. The works- Ramayana and Mahabharta are also included in the category of Puranas. Srimad Bhagavatamaha purana deserves a special mention as a major Purana.

Puranas are classified in several ways. One is by the theme and prominence. Maha-Puranas are prominent works; and Upa-Purana’s are secondary works. Eighteen Main (Maha Purana) and eighteen sub (= Upa-) purana works are listed. The Puranas are also thematically grouped by the Faith dominance and main deity praised in the work. Based on the Vishnu related are Vaishnava Puranas; Shiva related are Saiva Puranas; Shakti related are Shaakta puranas. Upa-Puranas are generally named on the main deity addressed in the work.

The Maha puranas are :

1.Agni Purana( 15,400 verses)
2. Bhagavata (18,000 verses).
3 Brahma (10,000 verses).
4. Brahmanda (12,000 verses)
5. Brahmavaivarta (17,000 verses) .
6.Garuda (19,000 verses)
7. Harivamsa (16,000 verses)
8.Kurma         (17,000 verses).
9. Linga ( 11,000 verses).
10. Markandeya (90,000 verses)
11. Matsya   (14,000 verses) .
12.Narada (25,000 verses)
13.Padma  (55,000 verses)
14. Shiva (24,000 verses)
15. Skanda ( 81,100 verses)
16. Vamana (10,000 verses)
17. Varaha (24,000 verses)
18. Vayu (24,000 verses)
19.Vishnu(23,000 verses)

Puranas are also classified according to qualification of persons who can understand them. Purāṇas are supplementary and amplificatory explanations of the Vedas intended for different types of men. All men are not equal. Padma Purana classifies the puranas into three types as sattvik ,rajasic and tamasic , using the three Guna principles for classification. Six puranas are placed in each of the three guna tags. There are men who are conducted by the mode of goodness, others who are under the mode of passion and others who are under the mode of ignorance. The Purāṇas are so divided that all seekers can take advantage of the guidance from these texts and make spiritual advancement and adjustments.

The Mahapuranas are also classified according the three aspects of the divine addressing creation sustenance and dissolution:

Brāhma Puranas: (Brahma Purana, Brahmānda Purana, Brahma Vaivarta Purana, Mārkandeya Purana, Bhavishya Purana )

Vaiṣṇava Puranas: ( Vishnu Purana, Bhagavata Purana, Nāradeya Purana, Garuda Purana, Padma Purana, Varaha Purana, Vāmana Purana, Kūrma Purana, Matsya Purana)

Śaiva Puranas: Shiva Purana, Linga Purana, Skanda Purana, Agni Purana.

The Upapuranas are lesser or ancillary texts: these are sometimes also said to be eighteen in number, with still less agreement as to the canonical titles. They include among many: Sanat-kumara, Narasimha, Brihan-naradiya, Siva-rahasya, Durvasa, Kapila, Vamana, Bhargava, Varuna, Kalika, Samba, Nandi, Surya, Parasara, Vasishtha, Devi-Bhagavata, Ganesha, Mudgala, and Hamsa, with only a few having been critically edited. The Ganesha and Mudgala Puranas are devoted to Ganesha. The Devi-Bhagavata Purana, which extols the goddess Durga, has become (along with the Devi Mahatmya of the Markandeya Purana) a basic text for Devi worshipers.

Sthala Puranas are a class of sacred works which provide a connection between the land and Divine in many forms. The concept of historicity and time does not find any relevance here. There are numerous Sthala Puranas, most written in vernaculars, some with Sanskrit versions as well. The 275 Shiva Sthalams of the continent have puranas for each, famously glorified in the Tamil literature Tevaram. Some appear in Sanskrit versions in the Mahapuranas or Upapuranas.

Kula Puranas are other class of sacred works which provide a community identity linked to certain deity or event of sacred significance. These Puranas deal with a caste’s origin myth, stories, and legends (the word kula means “family” or “tribe” in Sanskrit). They are important sources for caste identity though usually contested by rival castes.

Valmiki’s Ramayana is considered as first social format literary narrative of Vedas, to reach out society. Veda-Vyasa’s Mahabharata, coming after several hundred years after Ramayana, is also classified as a purana. According to traditional schools Ramayana and Mahabharata are separated by several centuries in the Yuga scale. Ramayana is in Treta yuga and Mahabharata in Dwapara yuga. The common purpose of all three works is social outreach of Vedic message, the restoration of Sanatana Dharma in society. According to modern schools, Ramayana and Mahabharata are separated at least by 3000 years, both belonging to pre-Christian era.

Srimad Valmiki Ramayana is an epic poem which conveys the essential message: Virtue annihilates vice. It is a magnum opus of 24,000 verses (Sloka) in Sanskrit language, organized in to six units ( Kanda) with sub chapters (Sarga), it is hailed as the essence of Vedas, the story of the incarantion of the Supreme Divinie Maha Vishnu as Sri Rama to establish Sanatana Dharma. The six units are : Bala Kanda [77 chapters], Ayodhya Kanda [119 chapters] Aranya Kanda [75 chapters], Kishkindha Kanda [67 chapters], Sundara Kanda [68 chapters] and Yuddha Kanda [128 chapters]. A seventh unit called Uttara Kanda is also listed as a part of Ramayana.

Srimad Mahabharata (3100 BCE) The Mahabharata is a major re-narration of Sanatana Dharma by Sri Veda Vyasa. Coming after at least three millennia after Srimad Valmiki Ramayana, it is story of the Kuru dynasty and the issues of Dharma involved in their life events. Mahabharata, like Puranas is an open ended narrative, ever growing from its original 10,000 verse level (jaya) to one lakh verse composite status (Maha bharata) over several centuries. Attributed to the authorship of Veda Vyasa, it’s recensions are kept alive by his disciples Vaishampayana and Suta muni. Mahabharata is the purana -epic from where the ancient name of India is derived. As an ever expanding book, its structure is in to eighteen main books (Parvas) and within we have (Sargas). Mahabharata is a treasure house of everything that India is proud of: Srimad Bhagavad -Gita, the monumental discourse on Yoga-Vedanta in Samskrit language, ethical discourses like Vidura niti, Philsophical riddles like Yaksha Prashna, poetic stories of Nala-damayanti, Shakuntala.

Harivamsha, is considered a Maha Purana by some traditional schools . It is a poetic narrative from sage Vaishampayana to King Janamejaya. Harivamsa, means “the dynastic history of Hari, Vishnu. It is listed as the last chapter of Mahabharata. A work of 16,000 verses, Harivamsha is organized in to three sections – Harivamsa parva (50 chapters), Visnu parva (128 chapters) and Bhavisya parva (138 chapters). Attributed to Sage Vyasa’s authorship, the focus of the text is the life time events of Sri Krishna after the battle at Kuruksetra, including his ‘Avatara’ glorification. The narrative tradition of Harivamsha comes in the lineage of Ugrasrava and Saunka Suta puranika at Naimisaranya forest. Harivamsha is reverentially quoted by many Vedanta schools to highlight the glory of Vishnu and His ‘Avatars’.

Bhagavata Maha Puranam is accorded a special place amongst Purana’s. According to traditional schools the work belongs to pre-Christian era and closer to Mahabharata period. Modern schools are of the view that this work belongs to post Christian era, around 1000 AD. Bhagavata Maha puranam has its focus is on teaching bhakti (devotion) to Supreme God Vishnu (Narayana) in the form of SriKrishna. The Bhagavata Purana is the source of important narratives in Hinduism, especially ten avatars of Vishnu, and past times of Krishna. The structure of Srimad Bhagavatam is in twelve books, told as a story by Sage Shuka to the king Parikshit, cursed to die in seven days by a snake bite. This poetic work has been the delight of many devotees to savor the taste of devotion as a medicine and means for final liberation.

Summing up, the ancient Indian wisdom, having its seeds in Vedas has always reached its message to society through Puranas and Upa-Puranas, Ramayana, Mahabharata (and Harivamsha) and Bhagavatam. What is popularly known as Hinduism – as faith belief ritualistic practice of religion and culture, is better seen as an understanding and practice of Vedas presented through the lens of these works providing the song, stories and ritualistic symbols for common person to get practice Sanatana Dharma to get engaged with the Sacred Divine.

Geometric Precision of Vedic fire-Altars

The Vedic Rishis had realized the cosmos to be one living entity. The cosmos was referred to as the Purusha– The Supreme being. Different parts of the cosmos were considered his different body parts and different qualities of life were seen as the qualities of the same Purusha. For example- even when Agni, Indra etc. were worshiped separately, the Vedic Rishis were very clear in their minds that all these god-qualities are fundamentally part of the one Supreme being- The Purusha. The Rishis also saw clearly that not only the cosmos but even the human body is a microcosm in its own and is a minuscule representative of the larger being. The fundamental qualities, elements and functions are the same. Thus, the humans were considered to be a smaller imprint of the larger Veda Purusha.

When we study the Vedic ceremonies we realize that the entire effort of the Rishis was to create a replica of the supreme Purusha and his process of creation. Thus, the Vedic ceremonies involved making structures that represented the Purusha and his creative action. By sacrificing Vishnu, the universe was formed. This has been a realization of all the Rishis unanimously. Thus, sacrifice formed the central idea in replicating the process of creation. ‘In sacrifice, this world is formed. Thus, sacrifice we shall worship’, was the fundamental idea behind the designing of the Vedic ceremonies. In the Vedic ceremony, we see a confluence of the Purusha, his creative process by sacrificing (Yajnya) himself in the creative Agni, the speech (Vāć) as the instrument of creation and worship of several qualities of the Purusha as an instrument of aligning with the primordial cause of creation.

As the Rishis studied the cosmos, one thing that struck them was the precise position and motion of the celestial bodies. These celestial bodies always moved in a rhythmic cycle and their relative positions in the sky could be assessed only by some defined geometric rules. Thus, the study of the cosmos naturally led the speculative minds of the Rishis to study the divine geometry of the Purusha. Consequently, even if the Vedic Purusha was to be replicated in a Vedic Yajnya, the Rishis could not ignore the significance of geometry in constructing the altars. Thus, geometry became the fundamental science upon which the structures of the Vedic ceremonies were built. These included the temporary house within which Agni Kunda was constructed. The shapes of both the house as well as the internal structures were calculated meticulously to offer only healthy and best results of the Yajnya. By sacrificing Vishnu, the gods obtained the Earth. In other words, the matter in the initial stages of the formation of the universe underwent extreme toiling to become of what we see the Earth as today. Thus, the ground upon which the Yajnya (sacrifice) was to be done came to be known as the ‘Vedi’ (from the root- Vid– To obtain). Thus, the Earth is Kunda (hearth) and the fire in the core is the Agni. Somehow, it is very surprising that the Rishis knew that there is the fire at the core of the Earth and that the Agni Kunda represents the same. The Shathapatha Brāhmanam (6.1.2.33) and the Taitiriya Brāhamanam (3.3.6.2) calls the Earth itself as Vedi (Prithvi vedihi). Thus, the Vedic altar is the microcosm with its parts as the parts of the universe and the process of construction as the process of creation.

The simplest altar can be seen that which was built for the ceremony of the Darshapurnamāsa (the ceremonies of the full and new moon). Three basic fire altars were built named as- 1) Grāhyapatya (circular and located in the west) 2) Ãhavaniya (East of Grāhyapatya fire) and 3) Dakshina (Semicircular and located at south-east at 1/3^rd distance between the Grāhyapatya and Ãhavaniya but nearer to Grāhyapatya. All the three, though of different shapes, are formed of the same quantity of area.

The Altar is overall broader at the east and west and narrower at the middle. An extension of the basic altar as mentioned above containing three fires is the Mahāvedi (the great Vedi) used for Soma sacrifices. The Mahāvedi is the largest Altar built of all the ceremonies. Outside the Mahāvedi area, towards its west, is a rectangular shaped hall (of defined dimensions) inside which are the Grāhyapatya, Ãhavaniya and Dakshinagni in positions mentioned for the Darshapurnamāsa ceremony are placed. This area is referred to as the Prāchinavamsa (Old hall). To the east side of this rectangular space is a large trepezoid which forms the Mahāvedi. To the west of the Mahāvedi is the section named as Sadas, in the middle area is the Havirdhanna and towards the east most side is a falcon shaped fire altar. The Mahāvedi is measured as 36 Prakramas (67.5 feet, east-west) and 30/33 Prakramas (56 ½ ft/ 61.875 ft. north-south).

The different areas serve the following functions-

Grāhyapatya – This is the Agni that is invoked first. One this fire is established all other fires are established from this Agni. The person who establishes the Grahyapatya has to be a householder. The Grahyapatya is called the lord of the house and is the centre of all the sacrificial activities. It represents the quality of sustenance of the Veda Purusha.
Ãhavaniya – This is a square-shaped hearth. The Agni from Grahapatya is used to light the Agni in the Ahanavaniya named Kunda. This is used to honour the devas and represents the creation of sustenance of the Veda Purusha.
Dakshinagni– This is formed by lighting from Grahapatya. It represents the destructive form of the Veda Purusha.
Sadas– The Sadas area contains 6 fire hearths. The hearth of the priest called Hotr is said to be in the middle upon the spine of the Purusha. The fires of Maitravaruna or prasatra are to the south of the spine the remaining 4 are on the north of the spine. The eastern hearths are the hearths of the gods and the western are the those of the humans. One should not cross over these hearths. These hearths inside the Sadas area are at a distance of 18 angulas (13.5 inches) from each other. The Soma mantra recitations from 10^th/12^th day are carried in the area of Sadas.
Havirdhana– This is where the soma pressings are offered to the gods.

It is most interesting to note the extreme geometric precision with which the altars were constructed. The Rishis used complex geometric rules for constructing the altars. The most important theorem that the Rishis used was the Pythagoras rule to construct bricks and structures of the same size but different shapes as well as constructing bricks and altars that are geometrically proportional (either larger or smaller) to the original structure. The rule of Pythagoras is mentioned in the Baudhāyāna Sulabhasutras (a book that explains geometric calculations used in constructing the altars). These were written 1000 years before Pythagoras was credited with his equation. Moreover, even before these times when there was no written work available, or when even the Egyptians were struggling to proportionately increase the dimensions of the tombs of their dead ones, the Rishis were using advanced geometric calculations! There are several other Sulbasutras which are treatises on geometric principles.

The following are few altars with their precise dimensions-

Sr. No.	Altar	Shape	Vedic units	English units
1.	Ãhavaniya	Square	One Sq. Vyayama	36 Sq. Ft.
2.	Grāhapatya	Circle/ Square	One Sq. Vyayama	36 Sq. Ft.
3.	Dakshinagni	Semi-circle	One Sq. Vyayama	36 Sq. Ft.

The most interesting and important part of the Mahāvedi is final brick-altar in the east. This altar is situated in the east most side and represents the final stages of awareness of the sacrificer (Yajamān). Thus, all the concluding mantras are recited here. It can have many shapes like a falcon (Chaturashrasāyenachit) with square shapes, a hawk with open wings (Vakrapaksha-Vyāstapucchasayena), a falcon with curved wings (Kankachit), a turtle (Kurmachit) etc. All these are formed of the same size (area) but different shapes. The size is 7 ½ Purusha (7 ½ feet). The Purusha is the fundamental unit of measurement of all the structures. The length of a Purusha was calculated by asking the Yajamān (sacrificer) to raise both his hand upwards. Now, a cord from his hands to the ground measures a 7 ½ Purusha (7 ½ ft. tall). This is done unless the Yajamān is too small or too short.

The construction of bricks for this final altar is nothing less than a mathematical prodigy. This can be seen from an example of Kankachit (falcon with curved wings).

The table shows the dimensions of different parts of the bird-shaped altar-

The individual body parts are formed of bricks with dimensions as measured below-

The final altar is formed of 5 layers with 200 bricks in each layer. Each layer represents different layers of the universe starting from the earth. The lowermost layer is the earth herself. The second is the layer above the earth and below the atmosphere. The third is the atmosphere, the fourth is between atmosphere and sky and the topmost (fifth) is heaven. According to the Shatapatha Brāhmanam, the five layers also represent the five vital forces- Prāna, Apāna, Vyāna, Udāna, and Samāna. The altar itself is Agni, and Agni is a representative of Prajāpati (the year). Each year has 5 seasons. Thus, five layers. The 5 layers also represent the 5 fundamental elements- first, is Prithvi (Earth), followed by Jal (water), Agni (Fire), Vāyu (Air) and Ãkāsh (ether) located in our Mulādhara, Swādhishthan, Manipur, Anāhat, and Vishuddha chakras respectively (from bottom to top).

Thus, one can see with this example if Kankachit how precisely, in geometry, the entire structure and the kundas were built. There are also reasons given for the need of this precision. The several shapes have their benefits according to Taittiriya Samhitā (V.4.11) of the Krishna Yajurved–

Sāyenachiti (Hawk shaped)- for attaining higher dimensions of existence
Kankachiti (falcon with curved wings)- for progress in heaven
Alajachit (Alaja bird)- for gaining a reputation in heaven
Praugachiti (Isosceles triangle)- for repelling enemies

Many more shapes are mentioned with several benefits. Thus, one can see that the Rishis were serious with regards to the dimensions of the Vedic altars. Any mistake in the calculation was considered as a sin and detrimental for the priest as well as the yajmān.

The Vedic altars have significance concerning the process of creation and the progression of a human towards enlightenment.

There are several instances in our ancient books that establish the fact that Bharat was immensely advanced in science and technology at a time when the rest of the world was playing with sticks and stones!

References-

Baudhayana Sulbasutras
Shatapatha Brahmana
Apastamba Sulbasutra
Katyayana Sulbasutra
Taittiriya Brahmanam
A.K Bag, Ritual Geometry in India and its parallelism in other cultural areas, Indian national science academy, Bahadur Shah Marg, New Delhi (Ref. Indian Journal of History of Science, 25(1-4) 1990).
Gupta RC (2003). Agni-Kundas: A neglected area of study in the history of ancient Indian mathematics. Indian Journal of History of Science, 38.1 (2003), 1-5
Frits Staal. Book: The Vedic Ritual of the Fire Altar
George Gherveghese Joseph, “The Geometry of Vedic Altars”, pp. 97-113 in Nexus: Architecture and Mathematics, ed. Kim Williams, Fucecchio (Florence): Edizioni dell’Erba, 1996.
Sulbasutras: Vedic texts on sacred geometry. Available at- https://www.sanskritimagazine.com/vedic_science/sulbasutras-vedic-texts-on-sacred-geometry/
Fire altars of the Vedas – A logical puzzle from ancient India. Available at- http://rogerburrowsimages.com/2018/02/fire-altars-vedas/
Altar of Fire: Documentary. Available at- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RYvkYk7GvJ0

Planetary influences on human life according to Vedic Jyotish (Part-1)

Humans do not live in isolation with nature. We are formed of the material which is as same as that of the earth. Rather, it is we who have borrowed the matter from the earth to gather the human body. Thus, it would be outrageous to imagine that nothing in this universe has any influence or effect on human systems. This was exactly the premise upon which our ancient Rishis contemplated to understand life as a whole and not a singular isolated existence. We must bear this one idea in mind that the Rishis were not mere intellectual scholars who tried to discern the make-up of the matter around or the mind within. These beings had transcended the dimensions of the matter and mind and permanently established in the realm of the spirit.

It is a subject of great curiosity for historians to digest the fact that our Rishis realized the existence of an entire system of planetary bodies by just the tool of the mind. This was the way of the Rishi. He had no telescope to see these planets. However, with great accuracy, the Rishis have envisaged not only the existence of a planetary system but also the fact that these bodies have a great deal of influence upon us. This is not anything less than a miracle. Fortunately, the historians do not dare to call this as a myth, for there are enough pieces of evidence to the contrary.

The tool of the Rishis was an unwavering mind, brought to a state of no influence and then observing the energy effects of the planets using the same tool. The tool was the mind and the method employed was meditation.

A contemplating mind of the Rishis could observe the Sun as a bright start in the day and moon in the night. However, the moon was also associated with stars that showed fixed shapes and association in terms of distance with the moon. The Rishis called these as the Nakshatra (constellation of stars). The Sun at different periods showed different places of rising and falling. Moreover, the rishis noticed few bright celestial bodies in the night sky that were associated with the stars differently at different times. Some of these bodies were brighter than the others. Also, it was evident that the moon showed different shapes at different times with these shapes repeating in periodic cycles. The Rishis at some point in ancient Bharat took up a gigantic task of studying the mathematical pattern of the movement of the stars, the bright bodies, the moon and the Sun concerning the Earth.

The Vedic Rishis must have realized at some point in time that the ceremonies performed have different effects corresponding to the different positions of these lights. Thus, they took up the task of studying these lights and called this study as Jyotish (lit. of the lights). So, the primary objective of the Rishis was to study the auspicious and inauspicious effects of these body-positions concerning the ceremonies to be performed. As the ceremonies became a part of daily lives, in time there arose a need to form a method of timekeeping to decide the start and end periods of the ceremonies. Thus, came the great Vedic calendar system. The primary objective of this calendar was to identify periods of ceremonies.

The early Vedic period called even the planets (including the moon and the Sun) as Nakshatras. In the Rig Ved (10.55.2-3) it is mentioned-

“He filled the two firmaments and the middle region, the five gods by season seven by seven. With thirty-four lights of common nature and diverse laws, his light spreads in many ways.”

A few may misinterpret the number thirty-four as the number of gods. However, Sir David Frawley in his research paper correctly interprets these as the 34 Nakshatras which included 27 Nakshatras, Sun, Moon and five planets. The five gods are the five planets. Since they are brighter than the Nakshatras these were referred to as Gods.

The Vedic Calendar considers two types of planetary periods- the sidereal and synodic.

When the Vedic Rishis measured the movement of the moon relative to its background of stars (Nakshatras), they observed that the moon returns to the same position after a fixed time. They divided this time into 27 parts. Thus, each part today forms one tithi (or one day in the lunar period). Also, when the phases of the moon are seen relative to the motion of the moon, the phases of the full moon and no moon (new moon) again repeated regularly. Thus, the tithis (14 in number) started from a full moon and culminated into the new moon. This repeated from the first day from the new moon until the subsequent full moon. A month was thus formed of these tithis. A calendar formed by observing the motion of the moon is called as the sidereal calendar. The names of the months based on the tithi system of division (sidereal) were mostly named after the nakshatras.

The Sun also changed its relative position when observed for a long time. The change in position of the Sun relative to the earth formed the year. This system is called as the synodic system of time measurement.

Thus, the Vedic system of time used the motion of the moon for defining the months and days, whereas, the relative position of the Sun was used to define the year.

A typical lunar year was formed of slightly more than 365 days whereas, the solar year was formed of 360 days. Thus, we can see a difference of ~5 days between the lunar and solar systems every year. This gap was closed by adding a month twice in five years (once every 2.5 years).

The Vedic ceremonies were entirely based on the cycles mentioned on the lunar and solar calendars. These are based on the new moon, full moon, solstices and equinoxes. Solstices are the times in a year (these come twice a year) when the Sun is either in the highest or the lowest point in the noon. Thus, the year was divided into two halves- The Uttarayana (or Summer Solstice) when the Sun moves towards North and Dakshinayana (or the Winter solstice) when the Sun moves towards the South. The Uttarayana is the period between the Makar Sankranti (14 January) and Karka Sankranti (July 16). The other period is thus, the Dakshinayana.

The twelve tropical months, and the six seasons, are named in the Yajurveda:

Madhu, Madhava in Vasant (spring);
Shukra, Shuci in grishma (summer);
Nabha, Nabhasya in Varsha (rains);
Isha, Urja in Sharada (autumn);
Saha, Sahasya in hemanta (winter);
Tapa, Tapasya in shishira (freeze).

Equinoxes are the two times when the Earth is closest to the Sun and the day is equal to the night.

The Vedic ceremonies used to be performed for yearlong where the start and the end dates were decided based on such calculations. I have given a few examples here which will tell the timings of different Vedic rituals-

The conjunction of the moon and the sun implied the new moon sacrifice ritual. Mostly Soma mantras and rituals were used in these sacrifices since Moon depicted Soma (the sap squeezed from the plant ephedra).
The conjunction of the waning moon with Nakshatras was used for performing rituals for relieving a person from the disease of excessive consumption (excessive attachment).
The Agni homa in the Grihya sutras are conducted at home during the times of the sunrise and sunset
The full moon and new moon ceremonies

The Vedic ceremonies are directed by a lot of mathematical calculations to ascribe a particular time auspicious for the ceremony. Moreover, the altar of the Yajna as well the organization of the Vedic chapters are based on certain calculations that take into consideration the different positions and periods of revolution of planets. It suffices here to explain the fundamental organization of the Vedic Indian system for measuring time. It would be noteworthy to mention that the Vedic calendar has a significant influence on the calendar around the world in the past and the present. In the next parts of the blog, we will see into following-

Part 2- The planets and geometrical calculations of ritual
Part 3- The planets and organization of Vedas
Part 4- The influence of planets on human systems.

Annexures-

1. The Nakashatras-

#	Name
1	Aśvini (अश्विनि)
2	Bharaṇī (भरणी)
3	Kṛttikā (कृत्तिका)
4	Rohiṇī (रोहिणी)
5	Mṛgaśīrṣā(म्रृगशीर्षा)
6	Ārdrā (आर्द्रा)
7	Punarvasu (पुनर्वसु)
8	Puṣya (पुष्य)
9	Āśleṣā (आश्लेषा)
10	Maghā (मघा)
11	Pūrva or Pūrva Phālgunī (पूर्व फाल्गुनी)
12	Uttara or Uttara Phālgunī (उत्तर फाल्गुनी)
13	Hasta (हस्त)
14	Chitrā (चित्रा)
15	Svāti (स्वाति)
16	Viśākhā (विशाखा)
17	Anurādhā (अनुराधा)
18	Jyeṣṭhā (ज्येष्ठा)
19	Mūla (मूल)
20	Pūrva Aṣāḍhā (पूर्वाषाढ़ा)
21	Uttara Aṣāḍhā (उत्तराषाढ़ा)
22	Śrāvaṇa (श्रावण)
23	Śrāviṣṭhā (श्रविष्ठा) or Dhaniṣṭhā (धनिष्ठा)
24	Śatabhiṣā (शतभिषा)or Śatataraka
25	Pūrva Bhādrapadā (पूर्वभाद्रपदा)
26	Uttara Bhādrapadā (उत्तरभाद्रपदा)
27	Revati (रेवती)

2. Tithis-

3. Months-

References-

Junko, SG (2010). The Vedic Calendar and the Rituals (1). Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies Vol. 58, No.3
Kak, S (2000). Astronomy and its Role in Vedic Culture. Chapter 23 in Science and Civilization in India, Vol. 1, The Dawn of Indian Civilization, Part 1, edited by G.C. Pande, ICPR/Munshiram Manoharlal, Delhi, 2000, pp. 507-524.
Frawley, D (1994). Planets in the Vedic Literature. Indian Journal of History of Science, 29 (4), 1994.
Apte VM (1958). The Vedangas. In Book: The Cultural Heritage of India. Vol1.

Shikshā: The science of sound in the Vedas

The Vedas are all about the effect of sounds on the human system.

Until the end of the period when the books of the Brāhmanams were being completed, the Vedas were an oral tradition. Thus, these were referred to as the Shrutis. The Manusmriti states that Śrutistu vedo vigneyah (श्रुतिस्तु वेदो विज्ञेय) that means- know that Vedas are Shruti. The Shrutis consisted of the collection of all the Samhitas, Brāhmanas, Aranyakas and Upanishads. Since the very beginning of the chanting of the Vedic mantras, the Rishis have laid much emphasis on the science of sound and its effect on human consciousness.

Until the end of the Brāhmanam period (when the books of the Brāhmanam were completed), there arose a need in the minds of the Vedic pundits to preserve this valuable treasure of knowledge from going extinct. Thus, the idea of a script to write down Sanskrit materialized. The sound system had to be organized to make it easily accessible and understandable to the students of the Vedas. Even though, the subject of sounds was well organized long before the written system came into practice, the age of the script has helped us to get deeper insights into the minds of the Vedic saints regarding the usage of the system of sounds.

This study of the system of sounds in the Vedas came to be later referred to as Shikshā and became one of the Vedangās (the body part of Vedas).

In the Brāhmanams it is mentioned that great harm is done to the meaning of the Shrutis if not pronounced correctly. Sanskrit not having a script in the early ages is partly because of the significance of recitation over sole contemplation of the meaning of these mantras. A lot of emphases must have been (and still today we can see) laid on the memorization of the Mantras with its proper accent, pitch, quality, length, etc.

Thus, it was necessary to lay down exact rules for the proper pronunciation of the mantras. The Vedangās are all written in unique sutra style. Sutras (lit. thread) are concise threads of principles laid down in short memorable forms. Since the Vedangās were to be transmitted orally there had to be a way for the students to memorize these subjects with ease. Thus, the sutras form a revolutionary style of Sanskrit literature, that could be easily handed down from one generation to the next. Before the Vedangās only small portions of the Brāhmanams and the Aranyakas were composed in the style of sutras.

Since the beginning, a lot of emphases was laid on the idea of the speech. The personified speech was called as Vać and was considered to be a revered deity. Even today a Hindu mind reveres the quality of speech and associates it with goddess Sarasvati.

Meagre mentions of the subject of Shikshā can be found in the literature of Brāhmanams and Aranyakas. Researchers ascertain this to the fact that the written work of Shikshā gained much importance later in the times when the sub-recensions (branches of the branches of Vedic traditional schools) called as the Pratishākhyās. Thus, we find much of the written literature of the Shikshā texts in these Pratishākhyās. Thus, a Pratishākhyās are the manuals for the precise pronunciation of words. All that we know about the subject of Shikshā today comes from the preserved books on this subject by the Pratishākhyās. There are four such sub-recensions in which we find the books of Shikshā –

Taittiriya Pratishākhyā
Rk Pratishākhyā
Vājaseneyi Pratishākhyā
Atharvana Pratishākhyā

Of these, the Rk Pratishākhyā is the oldest but the Taittiriya Pratishākhyā is the most important. This is because the Taittiriya Pratishākhyā mentions the Shikshā works by the great scholar Pānini in its purest form.

The original, ancient and the first organized work on phonetics can be seen in the Maheshwari Sutras. It is said that Pānini was inspired by this work and later came up with his work on the science of sound systems in his great work of Pāniniya Shikshā. The Pāniniya Shikshā forms the turning point in the Indian idea of the science of phonetics. It is a small treatise which originally consisted of only 18 verses written in the Shloka form using Anushtubha Chhanda (meter of the mantras that restrict its length). The other great works like Mahābhārata, Rāmāyana etc. are written in Shloka form using the same meter. This small treatise of Pānini later underwent several changes by many to make it into a treatise as we find it today formed of a total of 60 verses. Pāniniya Shikshā forms the smallest treatise in Sanskrit literature.

The book of the Rk Tantra explains the lineage of transmission of the knowledge of sound. It says that the knowledge of Shiksha was first given by Brahma himself to Brihaspati, from Brihaspati it was transmitted to his disciple Indra, from Indra to Bhārdvāja, from Bhārdvāja to Vedic Rishis and finally to the Brāhmanas. The Pāniniya Shikshā is the most important source for understanding the subject of Shikshā. I will be quoting some very important rules of Pāniniya Shikshā that form the basis of Sanskrit phonetics today and are applied purely in the chanting of the Vedic mantras-

On the significance of proper pronunciation:
1. Uttering a mantra most properly leads one to attain the Brahma
2. Sweetness, clarity of speech, the distinct pronunciation of words, correct accent, patience and ability to measure time in pronunciation are signs of right pronunciation
3. On the contrary, shyness, shrill, indistinct articulation, excessive nasalization, excessively deep or uneven tone, mispronunciation, neglect to the place of origin of the sound, improper accent, harsh notes, an unnecessary gap of time between words, haste, wrong palatalization of words are the mistakes that a chanter must avoid.
4. One must read quickly while memorizing the mantras, with average speed while using the mantras in ceremonies and very slowly while teaching to students.
5. One must avoid a monotonous rising and falling of the intonation, must not recite too quickly, must not nod head while reciting, should not use a text during reciting, should have understood the meaning of the mantras and must not have a very low tone.
On the origin of the sound:
1. According to Pānini, the soul inspires the intellect and these together inspire the mind for a desire to speak. The mind further activates the fire element in the body. The fire drives the breath to enter and circulate inside the lungs. Later, the breath moves and circulates in the throat, from here it finally moves to the roof of the mouth. In this process, the breath generates different sounds based on the place where it circulates or reaches. For example- the circulation of breath in the lungs generates a soft (mandra) tone, that in the throat an intermediate tone (madhyama) and finally at the roof of the mouth produces a sharper (tāra) tone. Thus, the Vedic mantras must be chanted in mandra tone using the chest in the early morning, in madhyama tone during the midday and tāra tone during the evening based on the cycles of the Sun.
2. The breath that moves upwards and is stopped by the roof of the mouth produces the speech sounds called varnas in Sanskrit.
3. The sounds are classified based on the pitch, quantity, and place from where the sound is generated.
Scientific organization of the sounds:
1. Based on the pitch the sounds are classified as- 1) Udātta (high pitched), anudātta (low pitched) and svarita (medium in pitch). The musical notes later in classical Indian music have all evolved out these three basic pitches.
2. Based on the place from where the sounds are generated (refer to the table for examples), these sounds are classified as-
  1. Chest (Uras): Ex. ह् (h)
  2. Throat (Kantha): Ex. अ (a), आ (ā)
  3. The base of the tongue (Jivhamula): Ex. क् (k), ख् (kh)
  4. With curled tongue or retroflex (Murdhan): Ex. ऋ (ṛ), लृ (ḷ)
  5. Teeth (Danta): Ex. त् (t), थ् (th), द् (d), ध् (dh)
  6. The base of the teeth (Danta-mula): Ex. र् (r)
  7. Tālu (roof of the oral cavity): Ex. इ (i), ई (ī), च् (ch), छ् (chh), ज् (j), झ् (jh)
  8. Oshtha (lips): Ex. प् (p), फ् (f), ब् (b), भ् (bh), म् (m)
  9. Kantha-tālu (staring with the throat and ending in the palatal area): Ex. ए (e), ऐ (ai)
  10. Kantha-oshtha (starting with the throat and ending in the lips): Ex. ओ (au), औ (au)
  11. Danta-oshtha (using both teeth and lips): Ex. व् (v)
  12. Nasal (Nāsika): Ex. ङ(nga), ञ(nja), ण(na), न(na)
1. According to the origin, the sounds used in speech are either 63 or 64 (this uncertainty is mentioned in the Pāniniya Shikshā itself). Of these 21 are vowels, 25 types of sound endings (or stops), eight together formed of- semivowels, sibilants and varieties of h sound and four yamas – ङ(nga), ञ(nja), ण(na), and न(na).
2. Based on the air or prāna that is used while generating the sound the vowels fall under either alpa-prāna [use less air, ex.- a (अ), ā (आ), etc.] and maha-prāhana [ex.- all variants of h (ह्) use a large amount of air].
3. Based on the efforts (Prayatna) the sounds are again classified as-
  1. Sprishta– while generating these sounds, the tongue touches the places where the sound is produced. Ex. क् (k), ख् (kh), ग् (g), घ् (gh), ड्. (nga), च् (ch), छ् (chh), ज् (j), झ् (jh), ञ् (nja), ट् (ṭ), ठ् (ṭh) ड् (ḍ), ढ् (ḍh), ण् (ṇ), त् (t), थ् (th), द् (d), ध् (dh) न् (n), प् (p), फ् (f), ब् (b), भ् (bh), म् (m)
  2. Isha-Sprishta– while generating these sounds the tongue only slightly touches the places where the sound is produced. Ex. य् (y), र् (r), ल् (l), व् (v)
  3. Isha-dwi-vrita– Here the throat only partially opens while making the sounds. Ex. श् (ś), ष् (ṣ), स् (s), ह् (h)
  4. Vivrita: While pronouncing these sounds, the throat is completely open. Ex. अ (a), आ (ā), इ (i), ई (ī), उ (u), ऊ (ū), ऋ (ṛ), लृ (ḷ) ए (e), ओ (au), ऐ (ai), औ (au)
  5. Sanvrit: The throat is constricted while pronouncing. Ex. अ: (ah) as in विस्मय:

Table- Origin of sounds used in speech. *(Image source: Pāniniya Shikshā, English Translations and commentary by Manmohan Ghosh*) PS- *Pāniniya* *Shikshā*, APr-. Atharvana *Pratishākhyā*, VPr.- Vājasaneyi *Pratishākhyā*, RPr- Rik *Pratishākhyā*, TPr.- Taittiriya *Pratishākhyā*, RT- Rik Tantra Vyākarana For Sanskrit meanings of mentioned letters refer to Website- https://www.rigpawiki.org/index.php?title=Pronunciation_of_Sanskrit_words

Thus, the sounds in Sanskrit are the most organized sounds of all languages. These sounds are said to be directly received from the soul or the Brahma. As they emerge out of the mouth they carry energy that can have an impact on the intellect and the mind. The subject of Shikshā has made immense contributions to the study of linguistics all over the world.

References:

Book: Pāniniya Shikshā : Translations and commentary by Manmohan Ghosh
V. Apte (1958). The Vedangas. Book: The Cultural Heritage of India. Vol-1
Gautam K (2019). Phonetics and phonological rules in paniniya shiksha. ShriVaishnavi by Rastriyasanskrutam Sansthanam. Available at- https://www.researchgate.net/publication/334670269
Vyasa Shiksha

36 Qualities of Agni according to the Rig Veda

In one of my previous blogs, I had mentioned that there are 33 god-principles mentioned in the Vedas. These 33 principles are classified under three main themes based on which realm they command. Agni finds great importance in the Rig Veda. In the Aiteriya Brāhmanas of the Rig Veda, it is mentioned that the worship or Yajna begins with Agni and ends in Vishnu. Thus, all sacrificial ceremonies begin in Agni. The first Sukta of the Rig Ved begins with praising Agni. There are 218 suktas dedicated to Agni alone. We need to understand that with the worship of the Gods in the Vedas is meant making communion with the qualities that those Gods represent. The Vedic Rishi was not of one who would worship Gods out of fear, but a one who would want to become one with the eternal principles. The Rishis worked against the idea of an existence isolated from nature. Rather their approach was of one in which the humans become one with the eternal principles of the universe. In doing so, they have always maintained the idea that by developing systems of karma that align with the universal laws, one may be able to seek enlightenment. This could be done by elevating the inner consciousness. To elevate this consciousness one had to align with the vibrations of the universe. Thus, the god principles were seen by the seers as vibrations and the mantras of the Vedas can align the frequency of the brain with the vibrations of the God-principles.

Agni found a special place in the heart of the Vedic Rishis. According to the Rishis, one could only move towards enlightenment if aligned with the principles of Agni and other gods. The way Vedic Rishis suggested was of worshiping the gods on chanting the mantras. Worship of the qualities along with the science of frequencies of the sound was the Rishi’s way to realize those qualities within. Thus, by meditating upon the qualities of the Gods mentioned in the Vedas, one can become one with these qualities. For that one has to take a two-way road- 1) Understand the essence of the qualities of the god-principles and 2) Chant the Vedic mantras to get in unison with the qualities. From the Rig Vedic Suktas on Agni, I have tried to pull in the essence of the qualities that are attributed to Agni in the Rig Vedic Suktas. I have done so with the faith that contemplating upon these qualities one may be able to understand Agni better.

36 Qualities of Agni-

Agni is the Priest himself who calls upon other gods. He resides in the Hotar priest during the time of the Yajna. The hotar activates this Agni in himself or other words he becomes one with the qualities of Agni.
Agni helps in gaining the wealth of knowledge
It encompasses and protects the Yajna from all sides from external detrimental forces
Agni is truthful
The light of Agni is the dispeller of darkness. It illumines the mind and the intellect with knowledge
He is a radiant one and rules all the sacrifices. All sacrifices- dravya-yajna or jnana-yajna are made in one or the other form of Agni only. The havan is but a representation of this Yajna in Agni. It symbolizes a universal ideal of sacrifice.
It guards the eternal laws of nature by facilitating sacrifice in the universe.
Agni protects us all by his force and light
Agni is the master of all forms of wealth. This includes material as well as spiritual wealth. The source is Agni.
Agni is like a warrior which protects us from the enemies which the devil protects
The flames are like his mouth that eat the oblations, convert those into subtle forms and make those get in touch with the subtle god-principles in the form of energy.
Agni destroys ignorance and thus, also destroys grief.
It destroys good and bad alike. Thus, all good, as well as bad karmas, are burnt by Agni
Agni turns everything into subtle form. Thus, it takes ones’ intellect and mind to the realm of the subtle, which is the real seat of knowledge. That is why Agni is said to be the pillar for gaining knowledge.
It purifies one’s body and mind (performs cleansing)
Agni purifies the speech and thought. It makes the speech sweet and divine.
Agni purifies the karma
Agni provides one with the necessary force to fight a war or the struggle of life.
Agni is like a warrior. He will always fight the enemies with zeal. These enemies are both inside as well as outside.
It is the force of Agni that causes the formation and movement of the clouds. The mighty beams of Agni fall upon the oceans for forming the clouds
With the worship of the Agni, the powers keep on prospering.
Agni is eternally youthful
Agni makes a mortal worth of eulogies and makes him immortal
Agni is the son of strength and strength and courage himself
Agni is as intense and active as a horse. Worshipping Agni brings one into an intense state of activity
Agni brings great joy with him as he is the destroyer of sins and inviter of the god-principles.
Agni activates the wisdom in man and makes him eminent.
Agni is multi-coloured, effulgent and brings dawn upon Earth.
Decorated with the smoke he spreads the light.
Agni is the Jataveda, the fire of the altar. This fire of the altar is the part of the terrestrial form of Agni.
For eternity the force of Agni drives the world to nourish life on Earth.
Agni moves with great speed and intensity
The Gods of Usha (of the dawn), and the Aswins, Savitar, Bhaga etc. are all forms of Agni
When urged by the wind Agni spreads through the dry woods making a roar exemplifying his valour.
Forming forts as strong as iron, Agni protects the worshipper
Agni is the shining forehead of the sky (light in the sky) and the fire in the core of the Earth, Agni is the bridge that connects the gross material to the subtle aspects of the existence. Thus, Agni takes one to the finest realms of this existence and progresses one in the knowledge of the subtlest mysteries.

A lot of scholastic discussions can be made on this subject. However, without understanding the essence of the Vedic method one cannot achieve its finest results. Thus, the student of the Vedas must realize the essence before he dives deep into the study of the Samhitas. By contemplating upon the essential qualities of Agni one can initiate his journey of becoming one with the principle of Agni.

May the light and force of Agni guide your path always in the learning of the Vedas!

Reference-

The Rig Ved Samhita

The Vedāngas- The body parts of the Vedas

There was a time in ancient India when the entire Indian subcontinent spoke in Sanskrit. There certainly are multiple opinions on how ancient this time was. However, there can be no debate anymore that Sanskrit at some time was the only spoken language in the Vedic age. A person whose mother tongue is Sanskrit need not be taught the science of grammar, pronunciation and other aspects of a language. However, in time to come Sanskrit was not to remain as we hear it today. The language gradually evolved (the classical Sanskrit) and its style significantly parted from that which was used in the original Vedic Samhitās. Also, slowly, in Bharat, Sanskrit started becoming the language only of the elites. The common people started speaking a language which was a lot different from even the classical Sanskrit. Thus, Sanskrit was to remain mostly in the scriptures and on the tongue of a select few. This naturally led the Vedic scholars to contemplate on the fears of losing this vast treasure of knowledge in the times to come. Fortunately, the written system had developed against an absolute oral tradition. Even more, the study of the Vedas for a student, in the ancient system of education, could not be started unless the student was well versed with some foundational principles before initiating the student to learn the actual Samhitas. The ancient teachers of the Vedas, in a later age probably, came up with six foundational subjects before starting the actual lessons of the Vedas. These six subjects were to be called as the Vedāngas.

Personification has always been our ancient way of expressing knowledge in Bharat. The Vedas are personified as the Vedic Purusha. The Vedāngas are so named because the Rishis considered these as the limbs of the Veda Purusha. The Purusha (the supreme being) cannot be completely understood unless one studies his limbs first. And this Purusha was not imagined to be in human form. But to have a form whose framework is in the subtle realm of knowledge. The Veda Purusha was always contemplated similar to the universe with multiple hands, legs, mouths etc. Thus, the Veda Purusha must not be imagined as some physical being. But a subtle aspect of the Vedic knowledge with six limbs (or six dimensions). The idea of developing the subjects of the Vedāngas was taken seriously in the later Vedic ages and developed until the Mauryan age.

Vedas should not be considered as a subject with chapters. Rather Vedas a complete school with six foundational subjects, i.e. the Vedāngas. For a student of Vedas whose mother tongue is no more Sanskrit, the study of the Vedāngas has a crucial role to play.

The Vedāngas form part of the 14 Vidyāsthanas (Chaturdashavidyā) that are considered to be very important in Vedic religion. These are considered to be 14 sacred abodes of knowledge naturally existing in the universe. These include the 4 Vedas, 6 Vedāngas, Mimānsa, Nyāya, Purānas and Dharmashāstra. These 14 subjects of knowledge are not considered to be man-made but are universal laws of nature. Thus, it was always considered a significant duty of every person to align with these universal principles. All that we know as Hindu religious philosophy finds its origin in one or the other of these 14 ‘abodes’ of knowledge.

The Vedāngas are a topic as vast as the Vedas themselves. So, in this blog, we will only restrict ourselves to introducing each anga to the aspiring students of the Vedas. The six Vedāngas include- Shikshā, Kalpa, Vyākarana, Nirukta, Chhanda and Jyotisha. The Vedāngas are primary to study the Vedic mantras for without understanding this one will never reap the real benefits of studying the Vedic Suktas. Thus, these form the six pillars upon which the study of the Vedas is based. Now let us briefly see the essence of each of the Vedāngas–

Shikshā- One cannot separate the science of sound from the science of the Vedas. Vedas are considered to be the cumulative effect of divine and primordial sounds on the physical, mental and spiritual system of a person. Thus, the Shikshā is the instruction in the science of sounds or phonetics. A student first must understand the effect of sound on the universal system and life. The Vedas are also referred to as the Akshara Brahma. That means lord Brahma himself evolved in the form of sound. Thus, the vibrations of the primordial sounds are considered to be the basis of creation and sustenance of the universe. Communion with the frequencies of the vibrations leads one to realise the supreme being. Thus, the Vedas are a collection of sound vibrations, if generated correctly leading to ultimate realization.

The subject of Shikshā focusses on the right pronunciation, accent, quantity of a particular sound, melody etc. of the Vedic mantras. It is the science and art of articulation of the mantras used in the ceremonies. The importance of Shikshā can be seen since the beginning of the Vedas. Vāć or personified speech finds immense sacred importance in the Rig Ved. Vāć is considered to be a separate deity in the Rig Ved. The Rig Ved itself mentions the development of speech in three stages- 1) inarticulate speech 2) primitive articulate speech and 3) language proper. According to the Aiteriya Brāhmanam (the Brāhmanam of the Aiteriya recension of Vedas), Vāć is an ocean that never exhausts. In the evolution of the Vedic literature, the first organized study of the subject of Shikshā can be seen in the Taittiriya Upanishad which gives an enumeration of six elements of Shikshā namely, varna (individual sounds), svara (accent), mātrā (quantity), bala (organs of pronunciation), sāman (delivery), and santāna (euphonic laws). However, the literature of the Pratiśākhyas formally embody the peculiarities of the accent and are considered very important books for studying the subject of Shikshā.

Some important Pratiśākhyas are: (i) Rig Veda – Pratiśākhya of Rigveda. (ii) Taittiriya – Pratiśākhya of Krishna Yajurveda. (iii) Vajasaneyi Pratiśākhya of Shukla Yajurveda. (iv) Atharvaveda – Pratiśākhya of Atharvaveda.

Kalpa– The subject of Kalpa deals with the science of the rites involved in the Vedic ceremonies. Even before the Brāhmanas were written explaining the process and steps of the rites, Kalpa Sutras had detailed these steps for easy memorization by the Brāhmans. Kalpa means the sacred rule of law and Sutra means a thread. Thus, the Kapla Sutras form the sacred thread upon which the laws of Vedas are beaded. The Kalpa Sutras is a vast ocean of literature and include the Śrauta Sutras (the ceremonies that are performed in public) and Smartha Sutras. The latter is further classified as the Grihya Sutras (the ceremonies usually performed in small scale at home) and the Dharma Sutras. The Dharma Sutras form the foundation of the duties and behaviour of not only the priests but also the common man at different stages of life as well as that of the Kings. There were many Dharma Sutra books written in the past of which only 4 survive today. These are of the Baudhāyana, the Ãpasthamba, the Goutama and the Vashistha. These mostly discuss the duties of people at different stages like Brahmacharya (Student), Grihasthāshram (householder), Vanaprasthāshram (retired) and Sannyasāshram (renunciation). These also speak volumes about the duties of the King, judicial system, as well as personal practices like regulation of diet, rites at the time of birth, daily oblations, funeral rites, and many more. Before the mentioned 4 books of Dharma Sutras the Manusmriti, Vishnusmriti, Yagnavalkya Smriti and Nārad Smriti existed, but are lost today. We do not find a single manuscript anywhere but only mentions in other books.

The Kalpa Sutras were developed at a time when the Vedic tradition was still oral. Thus, the style of the earlier Kalpa Sutra was suited for those who needed to memorize the steps in the ceremonies and can be considered as manuals for the priests.

Vyākarana: This subject deals with the grammatical portion of the Vedic Suktās. The Rishis believed that unless a student becomes an expert in Sanskrit grammar, he cannot understand the meaning of the mantras. Recitation of the mantras without associating the right meaning of the verses was never encouraged since the beginning. Thus, the study of Vyākarana deals with the analysis and decomposition of words, the evolution of words from root sounds, the structure of the sentences and mastery of the language. The Sanskrit scholar Panini has done some profound work in this field. It is worth to study Panini’s work on Sanskrit grammar. The book Ashtādhyāyi is an extensive work that organizes and explains the essence of Sanskrit grammar in great details. The formation of a word is considered to be the main aspect of grammar by Panini.

Nirukta: A student of Vedic Samhitās will certainly get frustrated by the meaning of the words in the mantras. This is because many Vedic words have multiple meanings. However, to understand the Vedas correctly one has to know the exact meaning of the words mentioned in the mantras. Yāska has done extensive work in his book Nirukta to explain the appropriate meaning of the words in the Vedas. Nirukta is the science of etymology or the chronological account of the birth and development of a particular word or element of a word. The monumental work of Nirukta by the scholar Yāska divides the words into five lists in his book. Each list is further classified under three sections. The first section consisting of three lists the words mentioned in the Vedas are classified under specific themes. The second section has a list that deals mostly with ambiguous and difficult words, whereas, the last section deals with the words associated with the deities as the Vedas is mostly about the worship of the god-principles. It is usually considered that the most interesting portion of his book is the introductory part where he introduces the student to the methods of the study of the Vedas. The book is worth learning!

Chhandas: If we study or even superficially read the Vedic mantras we will realize that there is a pattern in which the mantras were composed. Here the received knowledge by the Vedic rishis gets a mathematical treatment. The Vedic mantras are restricted by specific rules of length and are called a Chhanda (metre). Thus, a Chhanda is a system that measures the length of a mantra. Since the beginning, the Rishis have always given importance to restricting the mantras by specific meters. The unit of a mantra is called as ‘Pāda’ (one line; lit. foot). Each Pāda has a specific number of syllables. Since Vedic mantra is a science of sounds, the syllables are very important as they define the sound of a word. The Sanskrit syllables are a collection of all the vowels in a word. This collection of vowels in one word gives the word its unique sound. For example- the word tiger has two vowels as can be seen- Ti (ai) and ger (a). In the study of Chhandas, the word must be correctly dissected.

Example- the word mantritam is correctly dissected as man-tri-tam (vowels: a-i-a). and not as mant-ri-tam. The pronunciation of the word mantritam changes if dissected by the later way.

Also, the number of Pādas are fixed and a fixed number of syllables to each Pāda are ascribed.

Example- The Gāyatri Chhanda (not same as Gāyatri mantras even if the mantra uses this Chhanda) is formed of 3 Pādas (3 lines) with 8 syllables in each Pāda giving a total of 24 syllables in the entire mantra. If we keep on adding 4 syllables in each Chhanda we start getting other Chhandas.

Different Chhandas formed of syllables and *Pāda*s

These are the seven most important Chhandas used in the Vedas. The Chhandas have a scientific meaning. This can be learnt by studying the Gāyatri Chhanda in the Gāyatri mantra. The Gāyatri mantra has 3 pādas of 8 syllables each. The combination of each syllable with the consonant forms one particular sound. Example- the first word tat gives an energy that is associated with success, second word- sa gives bravery and so on.

The syllables in *Gāyatri* mantra and their effect on human consciousness

Thus, the Chhandas were considered very critical to the overall effect of the mantras in the Vedas.

Jyotisha: This subject deals with the science of astrology. The Vedic age was rich in the study of astrology. The Vedic rishis were of firm conviction and experience that the movement and positioning of the sun, moon, stars, planets and constellations have a major impact on the life on Earth. The idea that life on this planet cannot be an isolated incidence and borrows a lot of its effect from other universal bodies and phenomena was deep-rooted in ancient Vedic Bharat. This also gave rise to the Vedic calendar. All the times were classified as either auspicious or inauspicious and times that reaped the maximum fruits as against less than optimal for performing the Vedic ceremonies. Unfortunately, a large volume of written work on this subject is lost. Vedānga Jyotish is the only book that today deals with the Vedic astrology in great details. Maharshi Lagadha is regarded as the author of the book. Other astronomical and mathematical treatises are discussed by Bhāskarācharya, Varāhamihira and Ãryabhatta.

Thus, the Vedāngas build the foundations of the study of the Vedas. It is interesting to note that each Vedanga is ascribed to a particular organ of the Veda Purusha. It is astonishing to understand the meaning of the associations as well.

The Shikshā is the ‘Nose’ of the Veda Purusha. The nose is associated with the fundamental sound so-ham with its inhalation and exhalation. Thus, Shikshā, as it deals with the science of sound, is the nose of the Veda Purusha.
Kalpa is the hands. Since the arms are the instrument of Vedic action and Kalpa mainly deals with the steps of performing the rites, Kalpa is the hands of the Vedic Purusha.
Vyākarana is the face. The face is upon which most of the organs like the eyes, nose, tongue and ears are placed. Thus, the face forms the base of receiving and learning knowledge. So, Vyākarana which is the base of Sanskrit, which in turn is the divine base of the Vedic mantras is the face of the Vedic Purusha.
Nirukta is the ears. Since the Nirukta mainly deals with the meaning of the words used in the Vedic literature, and that the ears listen to these words to associate to a meaning, Nirukta is the ears of the Veda Purusha.
Chhanda forms the legs. The distance that the Veda Purusha covers (or the length of the mantras) depend upon the number of Pādas and the syllables in each Pāda. As the legs (Pādas) decide this distance, Chanddas is said to be the legs of the Veda Purusha.

The study of the Vedas may turn wavering unless one learns the Vedāngas. As the name suggests that these are the body parts of the Vedas and study of the Vedas has to be done by studying each of the parts before learning the whole.

References-

The Rig Ved
Howaldar M (2016). Importance of the Vedangas: An Analysis. International Research Journal of Interdisciplinary & Multidisciplinary Studies (IRJIMS). Vol-II; Issue: IX; Pg. No.- 77-85
Reddy B et. al. Vedic, epic and Puranic culture of India. Module: Vedangas. Pathshala-MHRD.Available at: http://epgp.inflibnet.ac.in/epgpdata/uploads/epgp_content/S000829IC/P001497/M015106/ET/14600120053ET.pdf
Blog: Chandas, Vedic Meters Details. Available at- https://ramanan50.wordpress.com/2014/04/06/chandas-vedic-meters-details/
Apte VM (1951). The Cultural Heritage of India. Vol-1. The Vedangas.

The origin of the idea of gods according to the Rig Veda

Considering the evolutionary standpoint of the Vedic religion, the Rig Veda stands as first in the sequence. This evolution happened in thousands of years, of which no one can ascertain a starting date. However, one thing is conclusive that it started with the Rig Veda.

There has always been some element of confusion in the Vedic scholars in the past and even in the present about the exact meaning of the gods that are mentioned in the Rig Ved. The Rig Ved represents the very early period of Aryan India and also helps us to understand a lot about the existing culture and practices of ancient times.

There seems a general narrative that Hindus worship 33 crores of gods. To enquire into the source of this narrative it is very important to study the mention and organization of the gods in the Rig Veda. The idea of the existence of a multitude of gods in the Hindu culture may be somewhat controversial, however, one fact cannot be contested that the Vedic rishis and the people belonging to the Vedic age always believed that there is one supreme truth and everything else is just a manifestation of that one truth-

At one place the Vedas declare that “O man! Praise God who is One and One only and who is the Omniscient and Omnipotent Lord of all beings.”

In another verse-

इन्द्रं मित्रं वरुणमग्निमाहुरथो स दिव्यो सुपर्णो गरुत्मान् ।

एकं सद्विप्राः बहुधा वदन्ति अग्निं यमं मातरिश्वानमाहुः ॥ (RV 1.164.46)

the term एकं सद्विप्राः बहुधा वदन्ति has a critical meaning to interpret the idea of Indian gods.

It says that “there is only one existence that is expressed as many gods.”

Similarly, there are several instances in the Rig Veda that speaks of the idea of unity in the concept of the gods. Thus, how many gods we may speak of they all ultimately unite under one grand idea of the supreme truth to be realized by the wise.

However, the Rig Veda presents material that may confuse the present Hindu mind. I say so because to our surprise the Rig Veda does not mention the gods that are worshipped today like, Shiv, Ganapati, Parvati, Lakshmi, etc. Rather, the gods that were mentioned and worshipped in the Rig Veda are no longer worshipped in India. These include the Agni, Indra, Varuna, Mitra, Ashvins (twins), Vayu etc.

It is noteworthy that the gods of the Puranas and that of the Rig Veda (even the other Vedas), seem to have come from two separate traditions. There might be following probable reasons why I say so-

The Vedas were written in very ancient times when the idea of gods was not completely evolved in the minds of common men. Even so, the Rishis seem to be knowing the god-principles completely.
The Vedas were developed in a tradition of the Aryans while the other gods were mostly worshipped in the tradition of the Dravidians. In a later age, the two cultures mixed so strongly that we do not see any demarcation anymore.
The third probable reason is that the Vedic rishis were extremely diligent of the objective of composing and transmitting the Vedas. The Vedas were received with a sense that is very different from what we consider it today in traditional Hinduism.

Whatever might be the reasons of the stark contrast in god-worship as mentioned in the Vedas and the current Hindu tradition, one fact is established that the idea of the gods in the Vedas was not at all primitive. Rather, the idea was developed by the seers who experienced the laws and forces working behind nature and life. These seers could make use of Vedic verses to invoke and invite these natural elements in man and surroundings to make their positive use.

Of all the gods that we worship today, the idea of the organization of the gods, even today, originates in the Rig Ved.

The Aiteriya Brāhmanam book of the Rig Ved mentions of a scale of gods. According to the texts, Agni is the starting point (Ãdi) and Vişnu is the ending point (Anta). Thus, the idea of worshipping gods starts from worshipping the Agni principle and culminates in the highest realization of the Vişnu principle. It is mentioned in the same Brāhmanam that all other gods, as mentioned in the Vedas, lie in between these two. Thus, the Vedic idea of worship was always considered to be evolutionary depending upon the spiritual level of the person. Nowhere does the Vedas reject the idea of fulfilling ones’ desires, nor does it exclusively affirms its application in the realization of the highest goal. Thus, the idea of the Rishis is simple- the Vedas must be applied depending upon the desires of its users.

It is critical to note here that many western interpreters have mentioned Agni to be lowest and Vişnu to be the highest of the gods. It is imperative here to mention that the Hindu mind, even in the age of the Vedas, did not believe in the lowest and highest position of the gods but of the beginning and the ending stages. Thus, the idea of equality was so deeply rooted in India since its ancient cultural times.

The entire Rig Ved has many Suktās that are particularly dedicated to the worship of one god or another. Also, some gods do not get a dedicated Suktās but are mentioned in one or the other Suktās wherever the context seems appropriate.

The idea that the one ultimate reality manifests itself in several forms can be seen from the organization of the gods. The gods are classified as-

Pritvisthānadevatāh (Bhu-Lok): those controlling the terrestrial plane.
Antarikshasthāna Devatāh (antariksha-lok): or those controlling the Areal/ Atmospheric/Intermediate plane.
Dyusthāna Devatāh (Dyu-lok): or those controlling the Celestial plane (beyond antariksha).

The gods of each sphere rule or control the laws of the universe in their respective spheres. The functions of some gods are said to overlap between the sphere. Whereas, Vişnu is said to control all the three spheres.

33 important god-principles belong to the three spheres. These 33 god-principles are classified under three primary god-principles-

The 8 Vasus: there are 8 Vasus mentioned (Dyāuṣ, Pṛthivī, Vāyu, Agni, Nakṣatra, Varuṇa, Sūrya, and Chandra). These mostly are the terrestrial and atmospheric (and celestial) gods and represent the following- 1) Super-terrestrial space (Sky) 2) Planets (Prithvi) 3) Atmosphere (Wind) 4) Fire 5) Stars 6) Water or ethereal space 7) Sun (heated cosmic bodies) and 8) Satellites.
The 12 Ãdityas: The twelve Ãdityas are the twelve months of the year. One year was referred to as Prajāpati. Prajāpati is also referred to as Yajna. The Ãdityas were so named because these were said to be born out of Aditi. There is confusion as which god-principle is Aditi. Aditi is said to be the wife of Kashyap Rishi. The Ãdityas represented the cycle of the revolution of the earth around the Sun. Since these cycles give rise to 12 zodiac signs, these were also said to affect the well-being of the people. Astrology was a very advanced and revered science in ancient India and many gods are related astrologically. The 12 Ãdityas were named as – Vishnu, Ãryaman, Indra (Śakra), Tvāṣṭṛ, Varuṇa, Bhaga, Savitṛ, Vivasvat, Aṃśa, Mitra, Pūṣan, and Dakṣa.
The 11 Rudras: It is not clear if, during the time of the Rig Ved, the Rudras were completely understood as Lord Shiva. However, the Rudras were certainly associated with death and destruction and also life force. In the Rig Ved, Rudras are associated with the storm, the wild and the fierce or howling. Rudra is also associated with the Fire Agni. The complete understanding of Rudra as lord Shiva may have developed during the time of Yajurved. However, Rudra in the Rig Veda does represent cosmic dissolution. However, in the Rig Veda, it mostly represents the different Pranas or the life force energy. The 10 Rudras represent the Pranas and one represents the ātman. Thus, it shows that even in the time of Rig Veda the idea of ātman was developed. In the form of the areal gods, Rudra is said to give rise to the Maruts (the storm gods).

Thus, Rudras control the intermediate sphere and represents three ideas- 1) Death and destruction (Rud in Sanskrit means weeping) 2) Lifeforce (Prana) and 3) the fierce force that causes the storms (as Maruts– the gods of the storm).

Of the 33 major manifestations of the supreme god, 3 find importance in the Rig Ved. These are the Indra, the Agni and the Soma. There are around 289 Suktās dedicated to Indra alone, 218 to Agni and 123 to Soma. However, most of the Suktās for Soma is placed in the Soma Mandala of the Rig Ved. In other places, soma is often associated with the Suktās dedicated especially to Indra. A lot can be discussed taking up the idea of one god-principle. However, that would need volumes of efforts to research and study. In this blog, we will only discuss the general idea governing the gods.

In one of the verses, it is mentioned that the devās (gods) originate out of the devās (other gods). This means that certain god-principles have originated out and thus, a sub-set of (or related to) the primordial god principle.

However, it is wrong to interpret devās as gods everywhere. The term devās is used with different meanings in different places. At one place devās are used in the context as sporting, desire to conquer, pursuit, brilliancy, praise, pleasure, exhilaration, sleep, knowledge, motion and acquisition. At other places, it is used as “that which confers some advantages upon us, can illuminate things i.e. explain or throw light upon them and that which is the source of light is devā.” (Nirukta book of Yāska, 7.16)

Thus, it is clear why western scholars were confused with the term god. Two important reasons may be deduced-

The western scholars have not acquainted with the core objective of the Vedas and its culture
They did not go deep enough to the roots of the Sanskrit words. Many Sanskrit words have multiple meanings. Assigning a specific meaning without proper context or consulting a Sanskrit scholar has led to several false interpretations of the texts and the idea of God

It would be a grave injustice if we start interpreting the meaning of the gods as mentioned in the Vedas without a proper context or without understanding the experiential inferences of the Rishis. The Rishis were, for certain, advanced in their spiritual experience and the personification of the gods was but a means for the common mind to grasp and initiate in the path of enlightenment. Also, it is necessary to understand that the Vedic religion cannot be studied using the same lame lens of physical and psychologic analysis as we may do for other religions. The core reason is that the Vedic religion and culture was based on experiences of the Rishis that went beyond the 5 senses and rested only when the experience reached the knowing of the supreme truth.

Thus, the idea of the 33 crore gods in Hinduism are but branching of the core 33 god-principles (laws that govern the universe and life), which in turn arise out of 3 primary principles (laws) governing the terrestrial, areal and celestial functions of this universe. We can certainly see that the experiences of the Rishis expressed in the Vedas are far beyond the experiences of the senses or the mind and must be studied with the same approach.

The gods in the later Vedas are but further evolutions of those which were primarily instituted in the Rig Veda. The Rig Veda gives us the most ancient clue of the origination of the concept of god-principle as not some obscure or abstract idea but a highly-developed spiritual experience expressed in words.

“He whose eyes are everywhere; whose mouth is in all sides. Whose arms are all around and Whose feet are in all directions is the only One Divine Being who has created the heaven and the earth and using His all-spreading arms, He infuses life into all beings.” (The Rig Veda)

References-

The Rig Veda Samhita
The Aiteriya Brahmanam
The Yajurveda Samhita
Chapter IV: The Ved1c Conception of God. Available at- www.ved-yog.com
S. Ranganat. Gods in Rig Veda. Transaction No. 78. Indian Institute of World Culture
Anghelina C (2013). On the Nature of the Vedic Gods. Sino-Platonic papers. No. 241
The Vedic Culture. Book: The Cultural Heritage of India. Vol-1

The essence of a Yajna

देवान्भावयतानेन ते देवा भावयन्तु वः ।

परस्परं भावयन्तः श्रेयः परमवाप्स्यथ ॥

(All life is said to be a yajña. Every action, when made as an offering to the Īśvara, is a yajña. Worshipping, eating food, fighting a war, creating wealth, contributing to human knowledge, running family, each of these is a yajña. Doing these as offerings to derive something greater, makes these actions yajñas. When these actions are not done for material gain but with a selfless motive, that is the highest form of yajña. Sacrifice brings transcendence. Transcendence through sacrifice is the meaning of life in the Vedic religion.)

In a distant past of the Vedic age of Bharat, when Lord Ram was not born, the spiritual path knew no temples or idol worship. Then, all spiritual practice by the Rishis involved the making of a Yajna.

The great Rishis of Bharat spent years together to contemplate and meditate on the laws that define the processes that function in nature. The mantra portion of the Vedas are said to be revealed to the Rishis by the universal elements of nature. These mantras are said to generate specific sounds that help the reciter and listeners to get in unison with the fundamental principles that are being worshipped. However, it seems that ceremonial aspects got associated in some later phase of the use of the Vedas.

As the great Rishis were contemplating the essence of nature, one fundamental aspect that they realized was that all major processes that create and sustain life are borne out of tyāga (sacrifice). The observation that the earth bears immense heat from the Sun that leads to the rains and that the rains in turn support life on earth, led the Rishis to realize that the entire natural process is based on the law of tyāga. Thus, they concluded that the sustenance of life on earth is because of the karma of tyāga. This formed the basis for the concept of Yajna associated with the recitation of the Vedic mantras.

Yajna finds its roots in the word Yaj (worship or revere). It is noteworthy that this word is very close to the Iranian-Avestan word Yasna, which also means the act of worship. Thus, Yajna is performed as a symbol of worship to the gods to attain variety of fruits.

The entire Vedas can be classified as the Karma Kānda (path of action), Upāsana Kānda (path of austerity) and Jnāna Kānda (the path of knowledge). All these paths lead to becoming one with the supreme and subtlest aspects of nature.

The Yajna is a part of the karma kānda path of worship and deals with several ceremonies with varied objectives. The common thread is that all the Yajnas involve the worship of Agni (fire) and are meant to worship a particular deity. These ceremonies symbolize Tyāga Bhāvana (a feeling of sacrifice), not to be confused with animal sacrifice.

In a typical Yajna, a team of Brāhmans (priests) according to different roles perform oblations to Agni by reciting the mantras of the Vedic Samhitās. In a Yajna, typically the mantras of the Yajurved are used, but also include those of the other Samhitās. In the Samhitās we find the mantras but we find the processes of the ceremonies and usage of the mantras in a Yajna prescribed in the books of Sutrās and Brāhmanas.

When the Brāhmanas were not compiled and written by Ved Vyas and his disciples, the Brāhmans (priests) took the support of the Sutrās as a guiding principle for performing the oblation ceremonies. Later on, the Brāhmanas developed by different Vedic schools added guidelines to the existing Sutrās. So, these Sutrās and the Brāhmanas can be said to be the Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) of the Vedic Yajna ceremonies and also contain the meaning of the different activities involved apart from the list of activities.

A Yajna starts with a Yajmana (the one who wants to perform the sacrifice) approaching and inviting the learnt Brāhmanas for a particular Yajna. What Yajna is to be performed depends upon the desire of the Yajmana.

Based on the type of desire, any Yajna falls under two broad categories-

The Pravritti– This is tyāga karma with a desire to attain some material goals. The idea behind this karma is that the person performing the Yajna fulfils his lower aspirations and desires so that once fulfilled can move to the higher purpose.
The Nivritti– This is tyāga karma with a selfless desire or a desire to attain higher spiritual purposes.

Based on the ashram (phase of life), the person performs different types of yajna. In the Brahmachari (celibate and student phase) and Grihastha-ashram (householder phase), one performs Yajna belonging to the Pravritti karma. Whereas, in the Vanaprastha-ashram (the phase where the person moves to the forest for contemplation and spiritual practices) and the Sanyas-ashram (the phase of complete renunciation), the ceremonies belonging to Nivritti karma are performed.

A typical Yajna is performed by building a Yajna Kunda (Fire altar). The Kunda is planned very meticulously, with every brick that is laid is first consecrated by the priest. Also, the geometry of the altar and the structure inside which the Yajna is to be performed is methodically calculated. The geometry has a huge effect on later actions since a lot of activities generate immense energy in the system. Thus, the area is suitably designed so that all the people participating in the Yajna are positively benefited without any ill.

Different Brahmans (priests) hold different roles based on their expertise in a ceremony. A priest who is an expert in all the Vedic ceremonies is authorized as the chief supervisor of the entire ceremony for all the prescribed days of the Yajna. This priest is highly learnt, often spiritually very advanced to have realized the supreme Brahma, and is awarded a title of Brāhman. He sits on the north side of the Kunda (fire altar) and recites the mantras of the Atharva Veda. However, much of the time the role of the Brāhman-priest is to supervise the entire ceremony for any mistakes. Any mistake is followed by prāyascchitta (atonement). To his right side sits a priest who is designated as the Udgātar. The Udgātar sings the mantras of the Sāma Veda, whenever they follow in the sequence based on the ceremony. On the left side of the Brāhman-priest sits the one who is designated as the hotr. He recites the mantras of the Rig Veda, whenever they are needed to. The oblations are poured by the priest who is designated as the Adhvaryu and sits opposite to the Brāhman priest. The Adhvaryu is an expert in the Yajur Veda. Thus, most of the mantras that are recited when the oblations are poured in the fire are from the Yajur Ved. Also, we can see that four priests each an expert in one Veda are included in the entire ceremony. Based on the type of ceremony the entire process can last for one day or maybe a year. For example, a typical Agnicayana ceremony lasts for 12 days.

The worship of Agni is very important in the Vedic karma. Agni, as prescribed by the Rishis, is considered to be the mouth of the gods. This is because all that is put into the Agni (inside the Agni Kunda as oblation) is converted into subtle form. Everything subtle is considered to reach or even made up of the god elements. In other words, the gods as we imagine them are subtle forms of the functions of nature (Agni, Vayu, Indra, Varun, Vishnu, etc.).

Thus, Agni was always considered to be the portal for the gross to reach the subtle. In spiritual terms of the human body system, the Agni tattwa is exactly seated in the middle chakra. Below are all the physical chakras (two in number) and above are all the spiritual chakras (three in number)!

The Yajna is also related to the process of creation. Anything that is poured into Agni not only is converted into subtle forms but also gets multiplied. These subtle forms of the oblations are believed to reach the clouds where the rains are stored. As the rain falls on the earth, purified water fall on the ground that is taken up by the plants. Thus, Yajna is related to creation. Moreover, the ceremony involves giving Diksha (initiation) to the Yajman. The Diksha ceremony is so designed that it reflects the process of creation of the embryo. Thus, it is said that the Yajman gets a new life and gets rid of all his past actions.

Prayog means the performance of the Yajna. Based on the ingredients used in the oblation there are two types of prayog– Chatushpātra (4 ingredients) or Shatpātra (6 ingredients). The ingredients are called as Drayva. The Dravya includes rice, corn, samidhas, blades of grass, milk, curd, medicinal plants etc.

A lot of ceremonies like Agnistoma, Agnihotra, Agnichayana etc. are not performed on a large scale anymore. These are almost on the verge of extinction unless revived. But the ones like Darśa-Pūrṇamāsa (the ceremonies performed on the new moon and full moon days), Chaturmāsya (4-month austerities), and the sixteen sansk āras– garbhādhānā, pumsavana, sīmanta, jātakarma, nāmakaraṇa, annaprāśana, caula, upanayana, snātaka and vivāha, are still in practice.

It must be noted that the Vedic Yajna represents the Tyāga Bhāvana (feeling of sacrifice) in the participants. This Yajna later was expounded as the Karma Yog by the great Krishna in his Bhagvat Gitā. However, the foundation of Karma Yog is in the Yajna karma. We need to understand that there existed a society whose entire life was centred around the noble idea of sacrifice and the virtues of Karma Yog. For Dān (charity) was the central theme and performing all actions with the intention of charity, and attaining higher purpose was at the centre stage of the drama of Bharat. Thus, our ancestors were living a life that revolved around worshiping karma using the symbol of Yajna. Moreover, the recitation of the Vedic mantras pushed a person more towards attaining the supreme spiritual goal and inspired every day to act towards the same.

Such was the greatness of this land called Bharat!

References-

Swami Harshananda. Vedic sacrifices. http://www.hindupedia.com/en/Vedic_Sacrifices
Jamison, S. & Witzel, Michael. (1992). Vedic Hinduism. The Study of Hinduism.
Kandavalli SB. Yajna. http://www.hindupedia.com/en/Yajna#Yaj.C3.B1a_in_the_four_Ashramas
Swami Sharvananda (1958). The Vedas and their religious teachings. Book: The Cultural Heritage of India. Vol-1
Staal F (1996). Book: Rituals and Mantras: Rules without meaning.

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